Femminicidio, dati, giustizia, vulnerabilità e public policies

This paper investigates the socio-economic and geographic patterns associated with femicides
and examines the role of local policies in combating gender-based violence. First, we construct
a novel, granular dataset of femicide cases in Italy spanning 2006–2022 and analyze it with
machine learning techniques. This empirical analysis identifies areas at highest risk for women
and pinpoints the main territorial predictors of the phenomenon. Second, we collect data on
all local anti-violence centers (AVCs) and show that our femicide risk map only partially aligns
with the local deployment of existing public support, suggesting that predictive analytics could
enhance targeting strategies. Third, using detailed information on the timing of AVC openings
in each province and a staggered non-parametric difference-in-differences approach, we find
that, on average, AVC openings did not significantly reduce the number of femicides, although
they led to a notable decline in sexual violence. These findings suggest ample room to improve
the targeting and effectiveness of public policies aimed at combating violence against women.

This interdisciplinary study examines how Italian courts construct legal meaning around
femicide/feminicide by analyzing three emblematic rulings: Castaldo–Matei, Gozzini–Maioli, and
Turetta–Cecchettin. Using a legal framework and a sociological qualitative framing approach
grounded in Goffman (1974) and Entman (1993), the research maps the narrative devices through
which judges select facts, invoke psychiatric expertise, and apply — or deny —
aggravating/mitigating circumstances. Two dominant frames emerge. First, jealousy is presented
as a punitive emotional surge or — from a pathological perspective — as a clinical syndrome of
“delusional jealousy”: the perpetrator of femicide/femininicide is either to be condemned to life
imprisonment as a "monster" deserving hard punishment or acquitted as a "madman". Second,
restrictive judicial interpretations of Article 612-bis (persecutory acts) and Article 61(1)(4)
(cruelty) narrow the preventive reach of sentinel offences. Cyber-surveillance, digital records of
the victim's words, and protracted suffering are downplayed, while selective citation of expert
testimony can justify mitigation or full exculpation. These interpretive choices affect judicial
outcomes, public perception, and victims' willingness to report harassment. Framing analysis does
not aim to evaluate judgments: it can merely contribute to understanding the implicit social
arrangements in which even legal actors run, although within specific limits. Despite recognizing
the inherent limitations of a three-case study analysis, our article seeks to highlight the significance
of interdisciplinary approaches, offering insights into how prevailing interpretive frames often
individualize the crime of femicide/feminicide and conceal underlying structural gender
asymmetry.

DOI: 10.15167/2279-5057/AG2025.14.18.2632

Intimate partner femicide (IPF) is the most common form of femicide and a severe expression of gender-based violence, highlighting persistent gender inequality worldwide. Addressing this major public health concern requires a comprehensive synthesis of existing evidence to inform prevention strategies. This review aims to identify risk factors for IPF and explore the demographic, behavioral, and psychosocial characteristics of victims and perpetrators.
Methods: A narrative review was conducted using a systematic literature search in Scopus, Web of Science, and PubMed, following PRISMA guidelines. Studies were selected based on predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria. Out of 1200 identified records, 51 met the criteria and were included. Data extraction and analysis were conducted independently by two reviewers. Findings are presented narratively.
Results: The review identified multiple risk factors for IPF. Victims were more likely to be married, with a history of psychological and physical abuse as well as substance use. Perpetrators were typically older, with higher rates of unemployment, psychiatric disorders, and substance use. Common precipitating factors included jealousy, separation, and recurrent conflicts. Weapon use—particularly knives and firearms—and “overkill” were frequent. Perpetrators often exhibited stalking behaviors and a history of intimate
partner violence. Compared to other homicide offenders, IPF perpetrators were generally older, more often employed, and less likely to have a criminal background, but more likely to engage in intimate partner violence and hold patriarchal beliefs. Conclusions: IPF is not an unpredictable act. Despite the heterogeneity among perpetrators, identifiable risk indicators can inform effective prevention and intervention efforts.

DOI: 10.3390/brainsci15060589

Empirical evidence shows that lethal violence against women is not a random
event: it is rooted in relational and territorial contexts marked by persistent in-
equalities. Public discourse on femicide often focuses on individual, high-pro-
file cases, relying on an emotional register which – though necessary – risks
obscuring the structural nature of the phenomenon. A sociological perspective
is needed, one that brings together numbers and symbols: that quantifies, but
also interrogates cultural codes, power asymmetries, and gender representa-
tions. While scientific research increasingly moves in this direction, public rhet-
oric still struggles to do so. Only through a language that combines structural
analysis and symbolic interpretation can we move from indignation to informed
public action.

(1) Background: Femicide is an increasing phenomenon consisting of the murder of a
woman for gender-related reasons. Despite the enactment of new laws aimed at controlling the
phenomenon by toughening the penalties and introducing aggravating circumstances, there is an
increasing trend that testifies to the persistence of a flaw in the actual measures. (2) Case Presentation.
We report the case of the murder of a 32-year-old woman—perpetrated by an ex-husband who
refused to accept the end of the marriage—the analysis of which allowed us to frame the case
as femicide. (3) Discussion. Despite global awareness of this phenomenon, the identification of
risk factors to predict and prevent femicide is of utmost importance. This can be achieved by a
multidisciplinary approach involving police officers, legal professionals, hospitals, governmental and
nongovernmental organizations, and medico-legal departments aimed at promoting standardized
methodologies. (4) Conclusions. We evaluate the contribution of forensic investigations to the
identification of key elements that can help frame the murder of a woman as a femicide. Considering
the devastating consequences for children who witness this kind of violence within the domestic
setting, the planning of more impactful preventive actions is, thus, mandatory to minimize effects on
public health.

Despite a wealth of research on intimate partner homicide, research on intimate partner homicide followed by suicide of the perpetrator is sparse.
Existing studies on intimate partner homicide-suicide: tend to be descriptive,not keeping pace with quantitative advances in the epidemiological and social sciences; have yet to examine how context impacts intimate partner homicide-suicide; and are typically limited to male perpetrators, given small localized samples of female-perpetrated intimate partner (homicide and) homicide-suicide.
This study uses data on 7584 heterosexual intimate partner homicide and homicide-suicide cases distributed across 2465 places and 42 U.S. states from the National Violent Death Reporting System (2003–2018) to examine the victim and perpetrator characteristics, relationship dynamics, situational factors, and contextual features that in uence the likelihood of committing suicide following intimate partner homicide. Hierarchical logistic regression models indicate that victim characteristics that increase the vulnerability to victimization (alcohol and drug use, mental health problems, less than some college education) decrease the odds of committing suicide following intimate partner homicide. Similarly, situational (victim weapon usage, additional perpetrators) and contextual (concentrated disadvantage, residential instability) risk factors decrease the odds of committing suicide following intimate partner homicide. Conversely, impairment of the perpetrator (alcohol use, mental health problems) and a more intimate victim-perpetrator relationship (spousal relationship, caregiver) increases the odds of homicide-suicide. Additionally, results indicate that rearms play an integral part in homicide-suicide as well as in decreasing the gender gap in homicide-suicide.
The findings suggest that the internalization of guilt by perpetrators of intimate partner homicide may play a key role in subsequent suicide. Practically, limiting rearm exposure will not only reduce the lethality of intimate partner violence, but will decrease the odds of perpetrator suicide following intimate partner homicide. This is particularly true for female-perpetrated homicide-suicide, which is unlikely to occur without a rearm.

Femicide is a key global indicator of progress towards gender equality. The occurrence of some but not all five gender dimensions in the indicators of violence used to measure progress towards United Nations Sustainable Development Goals 5, 11 and 16 are analysed as resulting from the tension between divergent feminist strategies that focus either on women-only or on mainstreaming intersecting inequalities. The tension between universalist and particularist projects underlies the contestations over the construction of these gendered indicators. The analysis develops a conceptualisation of indicators as assets in order to capture the social relations of power involved (rather than as boundary objects), supported by platforms (which can be public as well as corporate) and generated by dynamic epistemic systems (rather than stable epistemological infrastructures).

DOI: 10.1177/00113921221084357

Exploiting high-frequency data from the Italian anti-violence helpline, police reports of domestic abuse and maltreatments, and a unique geolocalized dataset on killings of women, we show that the news coverage of a femicide triggers an increase in help-seeking behavior. The effect is detectable in the period following the news and in the province where the femicide has occurred. Additionally, help-seeking increases more when the general interest and news coverage are higher. These findings are consistent with a model in which femicide news increase expectations about future intimate partner violence in case no action is taken. Our results imply that recurrent information campaigns and public discussion can foster help-seeking from survivors of gender-based violence.

• Intimate partner violence and help-seeking: The role of femicide news

  [ .pdf 1437Kb ]

  Preprint of the paper written by Marco Colagrossi, Claudio Deiana, Davide Dragone, Andrea Geraci, Ludovica Giua, and Elisa Iori

Introduction: The present research aims at analyzing criminological and medico-legal characteristics of intra-
familiar homicides occurred in two major Italian cities (Milano and Monza) from the beginning of 2006 to the
end of 2021.
Methods: Cases were identified using the Institutional database of the Institute of Legal Medicine of Milan, where
all the autopsies of victims were performed. Data about these cases were obtained from autopsies findings,
preliminary investigation reports, local papers and victim relatives’ interviews.
In this period 11,480 autopsies were performed: 392 were homicides and, among these, 94 were confirmed as
intra-familiar homicides (as a result of 84 events).
Cases were classified according to the classic definition of intimate partner violence (referring only to an intra-
familiar context), parricides, filicides, fratricides, familicides and grannicides.
Age, sex, nationality and risk factors of the victims and perpetrators, as well as methods of murder were
registered for each case. Only in some cases, motives for murder were known.
Results: The most frequent type of intra-familiar homicides was intimate partner violence (41.5%), followed by
parricides (16%, mainly matricides), filicides (10.7%) and fratricides (6.4%). 9.6% of the total number of events
were familicides.
Risk factors were frequently involved, in particular among perpetrators and in the group of parricides, while
among siblicides they showed minimal relevance. Overall, psychiatric pathologies were the main risk factors
involved (at least 23.8%), unlike extrafamiliar homicides, where previous criminal report or involvement in
illicit traffics are frequently reported among perpetrators. This finding enlightens the difficulties of caring for a
relative with a mental disorder, who can become dangerous for the domestic caregiver.
Furthermore, the high number of physical illness and the advanced age of victims points out the tragical con-
sequences of the lack of social support system for these categories of people.
Methods: of murder were mainly cold steel (30–31.9%) and firearms (21–22.3%). However choking/manual
ligature (9–9.6%), blunt force trauma inflicted using objects found on the scenario or bare handed (16–17%) and
combined methods (11–11.7%) were frequently represented confirming the expected high level of impulsivity
related to this kind of crime.

Individuals experiencing homelessness—an extreme form of social exclusion—have considerably higher risk of being victims of violence than the general population. We analyze the episodes of violence suffered by 504 individuals experiencing homelessness in Spain, as well as the differences between men and women. The results indicate high levels of violence and suggest that gender (specifically, being a woman) is the primary factor driving exposure to violence among this group. Highlighting the reality of women experiencing homelessness can help social, mental health, and addiction services adjust responses to better address the needs of this group and offer comprehensive care.

DOI: 10.1177/10778012211022780

• https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34213398/

Femicide refers to the extreme form of violence against someone belonging to the female gender, i.e. the killing
of a woman. Research shows that, to date, gender-based violence remains largely a hidden phenomenon with
prevalence often being underestimated by official statistics and data missing in numerous countries. It can be
argued that the under-reporting may be suggestive of a legislative gap that needs addressing.
This work aims to reach a shared medico-legal definition of femicide stemming from a comprehensive review
of the current legislation of countries around the world. In addition, it appraises forensic pathology studies
focusing on the murder of women as well as the most relevant documents published by prominent international
organizations fighting violence against women. Review of the literature shows a scarcity of national legislations
concerning specifically femicide, despite the attention given to this phenomenon by international organizations
fighting violence against women.
Additionally, a non-homogeneous framing of the term femicide arises from the forensic pathology literature
and national laws. Starting from one of the funding principle of medical ethics – autonomy – authors propose to
define femicide as a murder perpetrated because of a failure to recognize the victim’s right to self-determination.
This definition would give the forensic pathologist a central role in identifying femicide cases among the
murders of women. A shared forensic approach is needed, ideally employing standardized methodology to
compare international data and to standardize scientific research in the field.

The present study investigated the intimate partner femicide (IPF) and intimate partner
femicide–suicide (IPFS) perpetrators’ individual, relational, and contextual characteristics by analyzing, within the ecological approach, femicide cases that occurred in Italy from 2010 to 2019. On the topic, to date, scant studies examined possible differences between IPF and IPFS risk factors, and no studies have analyzed these factors by adopting an ecological systems model perspective. To this aim, archival research was carried out. Of a total of 1.207 femicides, 409 were IPF, and 227 were IPFS. Perpetrators’ age, level of employment, law enforcement membership, mental and/or physical illnesses, use of psychoactive substances, previous crimes, previous violent relationships, presence of children, previous violence in the couple, inability to accept the end of the relationship, quarrels and conflict, jealousy and the psychophysical illnesses of both authors and victims, as well as the use of firearms and victim’s request for help were analyzed. The results underlined the existence of different risk factors contributing to the IPF perpetrators’ decision to commit suicide such as perpetrators’ age, law enforcement membership, and firearm availability. These findings stress the need for specific risk assessment and management strategies for IPFS perpetrators.

Abstract
This study of femicide involving elderly women, or female geronticide, aims to fill a gap in the research literature. The article is divided into three parts: a review of the literature on femicide, geronticide, and specifically female geronticide; a review of the literature utilizing Israel as a case-study and an empirical report on the findings of the first longitudinal study on female geronticide in Israel, which demonstrates that over a period of 10 years (2006–2015) female geronticide was perpetrated solely by intimate male partners. Findings of the study also show post hoc that while femicide is perpetrated in disproportionate numbers by, and towards, members of particular ethnic categories, such as Ethiopian immigrants and foreign migrants, there were no cases of female geronticide in these two groups. The likelihood of an elderly woman being murdered by her intimate partner or family member was higher among the following groups in the following order: immigrants from the former Soviet Union; Israeli-born Jews and; Israeli Arabs. The findings are important for policy- makers in Israel but have applications globally.

DOI: 10.1080/09589236.2020.1809361

Per analizzare il discorso giudiziario, sono state prese in considerazione le sentenze di ultimo grado reperite nel database raccolto dal Ministero della Giustizia per il periodo 2010-2016. Inizialmente costituito da 502 sentenze di I e II grado richieste dal Ministero in quanto “femminicidio” circa casi di violenza estrema contro vittime femminili, ai fini di questa analisi sono state prima isolate 467 sentenze su casi di omicidio consumato e poi selezionate le 370 sentenze di ultimo grado per ogni caso (per taluni casi potevano esserci sentenze di grado diverso).
L'analisi offre tre piani di approfondimento: a) l'individuazione e codifica di categorie quantificabili (come ad esempio i motivi rilevabili, le relazioni autore-vittima, dati anagrafici ove presenti, gli attori e le professioni eventualmente mobilitati nel resoconto delle sentenze, tipo di pena comminata, ecc.); b) l'analisi tematica di una selezione ragionata di alcune sentenze con specifico riferimento alle modalità discorsive utilizzate per narrare i moventi rilevati come attinenti alla “sfera sentimentale”; c) il contributo qualitativo derivante dalle rappresentazioni emerse da interviste aperte a testimoni privilegiati esponenti di diverse professionalità coinvolte.
Il macro obiettivo è verificare il modo in cui nelle varie narrazioni ci si confronti, a vario titolo e con diversa ricaduta pratico-sociale, con stereotipi sociali di genere più o meno solidi nel momento in cui le procedure normative di un’arena portatrice di conseguenze rilevanti per il cittadino si mostrino permeabili a strutturazioni simboliche tacite, oppure a segnali di cambiamento circa la definizione sociale della violenza estrema sulle donne: in gioco, di nuovo, è la dimensione emotivo-sentimentale a cui essa viene rinviata, in modo talora esplicito, talaltra tacito [nella versione ebook il capitolo è disponibile nei Darvwin Books del Mulino all'indirizzo https://www.darwinbooks.it/doi/10.978.8815/366320/_4_2054]

Résumé
Toutes les statistiques balayant le XIXe siècle en France convergent : le dimorphisme sexuel en matière de crime est incontestable. Entre 1811 et 1914, en Haute-Garonne, les femmes représentent seulement 16 % des individus qui ont fait l’objet d’une instruction. Cette différenciation sexuée n’est pas que quantitative. Hommes et femmes ne comparaissent pas nécessairement pour les mêmes crimes. Les statistiques, réalisées à partir des arrêts de la cour d’assises de la Haute-Garonne, semblent corroborer une criminalité spécifique en fonction du sexe de l’accusé. Mais, la construction des données chiffrées est à contextualiser. Et la dimension genrée de la criminalité est à étudier. Nous proposerons des pistes de réflexion.

Abstract
All the statistics concerning nineteenth-century France converge : sexual dimorphism in crime matters is unquestionable. In the Haute-Garonne, women represented only 16 % of individuals who were under investigation between 1811 and 1914.
This gendered differentiation is not only quantitative but qualitative as well : men and women did not commit the same crimes. The statistics gathered from the Haute-Garonne Court of Assize seems to corroborate the existence of specific crimes according to the sex of the defendant. But the data must be analyzed further in context. And the gendered character of crimes is to be studied. A new line of approach to the subject will be offered.

Abstract
Homicide in an important source of premature mortality, with intimate partners committing approximately one in seven homicides. Utilizing national statistics, this article explores recent data on intimate partner homicide in 10 European countries, namely Finland, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden and the UK. It discusses policy developments and the role of key policy-making actors and it provides a novel classification, based on the time when government action developed, that maps the 10 countries in a temporal sequence under three main headings: early birds, intermediate and newcomers. Notwithstanding great differences, the articles finds common trends in policy developments. Intistutional commitment in collecting intimate partner homicide data is consistent with an enduring record of both women’s activism and public action in addressing intimate partner violence.