program

1. It took 50 years to look this good! The development of Cognitive Translation Studies

Studying what happens in the minds of translators and interpreters may be the oldest branch of Translation Studies. In interpreting, a psycholinguistic period was followed by the practisearchers period, to then open up again to multidisciplinarity and both experimental and observational research. In translation, linguistic approaches were followed by a translation process research period, where data collection methods and tools took center stage successively focused on think-aloud techniques, keylogging and eyetracking. Current trends present a complex, fascinating scenario with growing numbers of researchers and research projects.

Reading assignment (RA): Muñoz (2016)


2. Through a relatively new and uncharted terrain. Current trends and scopes in Cognitive Translation Studies

Constant changes in digital environments have changed the very notion of oral and written communication. While translation and interpreting profiles diversify into a palette of multiple tasks, researchers are both focusing on common constructs, such as the mental lexicon and cognitive effort, and opening up to all agents in communicative events, such as readers and viewers. The old model of the mind as a computer is making room for approaches that will not isolate cognition from individual, social, and cultural factors. Current trends present a complex, fascinating scenario with a growing numbers of researchers and research projects.

RA: Ferreira & Schwieter (2017)

3. How did you do that? Translators, interpreters, and expertise

Changing the way something is formulated to let others understand it is a natural skill, something ingrained in the way our brains work. However, to excel in that enterprise, to reach some social and professional standards, and to make a living out of it you need to improve, enlarge, and diversify such natural skill. But, what is expertise? How does it come about? What are the factors that may improve and accelerate its development? Is there a certain threshold that can be associated to professionals? Do professionals always have it? Do all professionals have the same expertise? These are some of the questions we will try to answer in this talk.

RA: Shreve (2006)

4. What were you thinking? Multitasking, code-switching and metacognition

Tasks may be defined at various levels. When looking under the hood of, say, translating, we can see it consists of simultaneous and successive, alternating and overlapping, coordinated and emergent subtasks, such as typing, revising, correcting, and searching for information. Multilectal mediated communication tasks thus become more complex because lects need to be differentiated and alternatively activated and inhibited. All this leads to changes in perspective on how to (mentally) behave, and to a more strategic thinking and cognitive control, that we can subsume in thinking abut thinking, or metacognition.

RA: Shreve (2009)

5. 1000 ways of making yourself understood. The notions of meaning and translation

[Joint session with Prof Sandra L. Halverson]

On the one hand, the business of language is meaning. This is partly why linguistics has such potential for the investigation of translation and interpreting. This meaning commitment links Cognitive Linguistics to other (sub)disciplines that explore meaning making, such as Cognitive Semiotics and Cognitive Anthropology. We will focus on how one broad approach can encompass many of the elements of meaning making that are important in our attempts to theorize translation and intepreting. On the other hand, the business of communication is mainly, but never only, actualized through language. This makes multilectal mediated communication a fuzzy notion prone to multiple perspectives and partitions, focusing on particular tasks and subtasks, with labels such as revising, pre-editing, post-editing, respeaking, sight translation/interpeting, transcreation focusing on particular, often transitory social and market circumstances.

RA: Muñoz & Rojo (2019)

1. Our translating minds. What Cognitive Psychology and Psycholinguistics have in store for CTIS

Cognitive Psychology and Psycholinguistics provide robust findings and reliable methodology which can enrich TPR. A closer look at what we know about simple and complex skills including lexical access and selection, language switching, control of attention and self-monitoring can help us understand the complexity of translation. Some seminal studies have already made the most of this interdisciplinary research potential.

Reading assignment (RA): De Groot & Christoffels (2006)


2. Reading for what? The skill of reading and reading for translation – focus on eye-tracking studies

Reading is a fascinating process in which perception and cognition interact to create meaning in the mind of the reader. Eye-tracking has become a fundamental method to study reading and it has advanced our understanding of reading for translation and during the translation process (Jakobsen and Jensen 2008) . We will discuss potential benefits and some challenges of the eye-tracking methodology in psycholinguistics and TPR studies.

RA: Hvelplund (2017)
    
  
3. Memory and translation difficulty. Can bilingual memory models help us predict translation difficulty?

The robust body of research concerning how people comprehend and produce speech/text in their native and foreign/learned language has resulted in several models which predict the ease or difficulty of processing language for the language user. For example, highly frequent words are recognized and produced faster than low frequency words, concrete nouns faster than abstract nouns, literal meaning comes faster than metaphoric meaning, etc. We will look whether these predictions could help us assess translation difficulty.

RA: Vanroy, De Clercq & Macken (2019)


4. In and out a language of our own. Does directionality matter?—bringing together translation and interpreting perspectives

The question how bilingual language users perform when using their L1 and L2 has been widely explored in cognitive psychology and psycholinguistics. Numerous studies of semantic and syntactic priming have demonstrated the so called L2 cognitive disadvantage. We will ponder how these findings have found their way to the study of directionality in TPR studies and we will try to answer why L2 translation has been underresearched.

RA: Whyatt (2019)


5. Brain. Mind. Body. Together and apart. Bringing together neurolinguistics and behavioural research: points of convergence and divergence

[joint session with Prof Alexis Hervais-Adelman]

In this joint class we will look at methodological challenges in neurolinguistics and psycholinguistic studies of translation and interpreting. We will focus on how the study of the brain (neurolinguistics) can complement and explain the behavioural correlates recorded in psycholinguistc studies. We will consider the range of multilingual activities that are encompassed under the banner of translation and interpreting, and, with a focus on methodological challenges, why brain imaging studies have tended to focus on interpreters and psycholinguistic investigations have tended to focus on translation performance.

Reading assignment: Muñoz, Calvo & García (2018)

1. Cognitive Linguistics. The basics

In this talk, the basic features of Cognitive Linguistics are introduced. The foundational characteristics that distinguish this approach to language are emphasized, and the approach is contrasted with other approaches. The main areas of study are briefly mentioned and exemplified. The aim is also to illustrate why this approach is especially well suited for the investigation of mulitlectal communication of all kinds.

Reading assignment (RA): Geeraerts (2006)


2. A tale of two disciplines. Cognitive Linguistics and Translation and Interpreting Studies

We will spell out the potential of Cognitive Linguistics for the empirical investigation and continued theorization of multilectal communication of all kinds. Picking up where the first lecture left off, i.e. why this approach is so well-suited to CTIS, several key issues within CTIS, for example, translational relationships, translation shifts, and features of translation, are linked to the Cognitive Linguistic framework.

RA: Rojo & Ibarretxe (2013)


3. Castles in the mind. Schematic networks and translation

This talk illustrates the development of a specific hypothesis for translation based on Cognitive Grammar. The talk shows how the hypothesis has evolved and how the first empirical tests have been carried out. Suggestions are also made for a next stage of development in this research area.

RA: Halverson (2017a)


4. Translating by default. Letting translation happen

Cognitive Linguistics also provides a theoretical basis for investigating how linguistic production takes place, and how linguistic knowledge develops over time. The implications of a key idea from Cognitive Linguistics (and some psycholinguistic theories), i.e. entrenchment, is developed for translation. The construct of 'default translation' is introduced, along with its first empirical explorations in keystroke data.

RA: Halverson (2019)


5. 1000 ways of making yourself understood. The notions of meaning and translation

[Joint session with Prof Ricardo Muñoz]

On the one hand, the business of language is meaning. This is partly why linguistics has such potential for the investigation of translation and interpreting. This meaning commitment links Cognitive Linguistics to other (sub)disciplines that explore meaning making, such as Cognitive Semiotics and Cognitive Anthropology. We will focus on how one broad approach can encompass many of the elements of meaning making that are important in our attempts to theorize translation and intepreting. On the other hand, the business of communication is mainly, but never only, actualized through language. This makes multilectal mediated communication a fuzzy notion prone to multiple perspectives and partitions, focusing on particular tasks and subtasks, with labels such as revising, pre-editing, post-editing, respeaking, sight translation/interpeting, transcreation focusing on particular, often transitory social and market circumstances.

RA: Muñoz & Rojo (2019)

1. Studying brain and language. An introduction to the neuroscience of language
This class will constitute a very brief introduction to non-invasive neuroimaging methods that have been used in studies of Translation and interpreting (PET, MRI, EEG and fNIRS) and to the major cerebral pathways for speech comprehension, speech production, and reading. This sets the groundwork for understanding the following classes in the series.

Reading assignment (RA): Kemmerer (2015) ch. 2


2. Multilingualism and the brain. An introduction to the neural basis of multilingualism
We will build on Monday’s introduction and begin to examine issues related to how the brain handles multiple languages. We will raise issues such as where different languages are stored, and the neural basis of language switching and control. We will examine evidence from translation paradigms that indicate that controlling L1 might not be the same as controlling L2.

RA: Calabria et al. (2018)

3. The neural basis of Interpreting. Functional imaging investigations
Investigations of translation have shed light upon the mechanisms required to Simultaneous interpreting (or conference interpreting) requires the exquisite coordination of a vast array of cognitive skills. We will look at studies that have investigated the brain networks implicated in carrying out interpreting, in both novices and experts.

RA: Hervais-Adelman & Babcock (2019)


4. Expertise, interpreting, and your connectome. The cerebral consequences of expertise in interpreting
Acquiring expertise in any skill changes the brain. Here we will examine how expertise in interpreting alters the brain functionally, and structurally, in ways that might have consequences for other cognitive domains. We will particularly focus on structural plasticity associated with interpreting, and we will relate it to the more general question of how multilingualism affects the brain.

RA: Pliatsikas (2019)


5. Brain. Mind. Body. Together and apart. Bringing together neurolinguistics and behavioural research: points of convergence and divergence

[joint sesssion with Prof Bogusława Whyatt]

In this joint class we will look at methodological challenges in neurolinguistics and psycholinguistic studies of translation and interpreting. We will focus on how the study of the brain (neurolinguistics) can complement and explain the behavioural correlates recorded in psycholinguistc studies. We will consider the range of multilingual activities that are encompassed under the banner of translation and interpreting, and, with a focus on methodological challenges, why brain imaging studies have tended to focus on interpreters and psycholinguistic investigations have tended to focus on translation performance.

RA: Muñoz, Calvo & García (2018)

1. The fundamentals of research methodology. How not to kill your theory with your method

This seminar will make you understand the difference between empirical and non-empirical research. We identify the pro’s and con’s of natural data and elicited data. We will also discuss the differences between your data collection method and your data analysis method.

Reading assignment (RA): Saldanha & O'Brien (2013) ch. 2.1–2.10 (pp. 11–40), ch. 4.1 (introduction) & ch. 4.2 (pp. 109–121)


2. Screen-recording, eye-tracking and key-logging. What they are and how to use them

We discuss different types of data-collection methods, which aim to capture the ongoing translation and interpreting process. These methods are used when the research participant is on task. The seminar will include discussions on how to set up experiments and also typical pitfalls in this type of data collection. Methods to analyze the data are also viewed.

RA: Saldanha & O'Brien (2013) ch. 4.4 & 4.5 (pp. 132–144)


3. TAPs and Retrospection. Tapping into the process – is it at all possible?

These two tools are more are more challenging in terms of investigating the process, but may still yield interesting data. TAP’s are collected during task, and forces the participant to voice their process. Retrospective date is collected post-task and risk distorting the actual process. During the seminar we will see pro’s and con’s of these types of data collection, as well as methods for data analysis.

RA: Saldanha & O'Brien (2013) ch. 4.3 (pp. 122–131)


4. Questionnaires, interviews and observations. A case for meticulous preparation

Questionnaires, interviews and observations are often used in process research as complementary methods to the one’s we have seen so far. Too often, they are not given enough preparation, which in turn may completely skew the data. In this seminar, we will point out the necessity to know the method behind these tools and what to do when preparing data collection.
 
RA: Saldanha & O'Brien (2013) ch. 5 (participant-oriented research)


5. Research ethics. Why ethics matters in cognitive T&I research

[Joint session with Prof Maureen Ehrensberger-Dow]

We will discuss key ethical issues in cognitive translation studies research: informed consent; recruitment; data collection; archiving; reporting; ethics approval. In addition to being provided with conceptual tools, the students will have the opportunity to do an ethics audit of various research scenarios. Informed consent will be given particular attention.

RA: Sterling & De Costa (2018)

1. Operationalising the construct. From a vague idea to experimental design

An inadequate experimental design can never be compensated by data, however good it is in quantity and quality. In this session, we focus on the constructs you may wish to explore in cognitive translation and interpreting studies (CTIS) and how to operationalise them. The preparation and planning of a research design begin with identifying research questions and generate appropriate hypotheses that can be tested empirically. The operationalisation can be driven by an exploratory pilot, a theory, or existing research traditions and paradigms. This stage requires considerable thought because they determine what data are needed, how they should be collected, and eventually, the analytical approach to be taken.

RA: Chen (2017)


2. Collecting the data. Hands-on advice for beginners in CTIS

Poor data quality can never be remedied by subsequent statistical analysis, and how to collect high-quality data is a skill to be learnt for beginning researchers. In this session, we offer some hands-on advice on data collection in CTIS, discussing how to select the appropriate experimental tasks and stimuli, what to consider in the sampling and experimental procedures, what measures to use as dependent variables, as well as identifying the potential pitfalls in the recording process.

RA: Mellinger & Hanson (2017) ch. 2 & 3


3. Mixed-methods research. How complementary sources of data tell more about the cognitive processes

Different methods and data types have their inherent possibilities and limitations, and any single measure might be a pale reflection of the reality of cognitive processing in translation and interpreting. In this session, we discuss how to bring a mix of methods to bear on a research problem in CTIS so that we can make claims based on more than one mode of inquiry.

RA: Halverson (2017b)


4. Translation, interpreting, and technology. What does the future hold for researchers, trainers, and professionals?

The development of translation and interpreting has long been accompanied by technological advancements. More recently, the field of artificial intelligence has been yielding more nuanced natural language processing technologies. In this session, we take up the topic of technology, which looks set to play an increasingly central role in research, education, and professional practice in our field. To discuss this topic has special meaning in the face of the COVID-19 global pandemic, during which the sudden and unprecedented need for translation and interpreting technologies has become evident.

RA: Carl & Braun (2017)

5. Ethics of data analysis

[Joint session with Prof Christopher D. Mellinger]

This session addresses important ethical issues and quandaries that face researchers during quantitative research, including: reproducibility of results; over-interpretation of statistical results; missing data; data sharing; potential and detected biases in quantitative data; data mining; and data fishing or dredging.

RA: American Statistical Association (2018)

1. Human-computer interaction in translation. Why HCI is important to consider in most settings

Translation in most settings has become a highly technologized activity in which the translator interacts with various tools, such as computer-aided translation (CAT) tools, translation memory, electronic resources, and machine translation (MT). It is important to understand how HCI can enable, constrain and otherwise impact cognitive processing in translation.

RA: O’Brien (2012)


2. Translation, ergonomics and cognition. What an ergonomics perspective can contribute

We will discuss what an appreciation of ergonomics in its various facets (e.g. physical, cognitive, organisational, social, environmental) can contribute to the study of the situated activity of translation. An ergonomics perspective recognizes that translators work within systems that encompass actors in their professional environments and networks as well as factors such as source texts, tools, equipment and computer interfaces.

RA: Ehrensberger-Dow (2021)


3. Translation workplace research. What you need to think about before embarking on it

Some of the considerations associated with investigating translation at the workplace are similar to those of any kind of empirical research in cognitive translation studies, but others are specific to the workplaces at which professional translation occurs and to the reputational risks assumed by participants and industry partners.

RA: Ehrensberger-Dow & Massey (2019)


4. Methodological challenges in workplace research. Which compromises help ensure ecological validity

Collecting data at translation workplaces is not enough to ensure ecological validity: numerous methodological challenges have to be dealt with, compromises made and new solutions developed. We will discuss the issues and potential problems as well as the many advantages of investigating translation where much of it actually happens.

RA: Teixeira & O'Brien (2017)


5. Research ethics . Why ethics matters in cognitive T&I research

[Joint session with Prof Elisabet Tiselius]

We will discuss key ethical issues in cognitive translation studies research: informed consent; recruitment; data collection; archiving; reporting; ethics approval. In addition to being provided with conceptual tools, the students will have the opportunity to do an ethics audit of various research scenarios. Informed consent will be given particular attention.

RA: Sterling & De Costa (2018)

1. Statistical terminology and descriptive statistics

This session introduces the basic statistical terminology needed to read and understand quantitative research, including: measures of central tendency; confidence intervals and effect sizes; error, power and p-values; degrees of freedom; parametric and non-parametric testing; causality and hypothesis testing.

RA: Mellinger & Hanson (2017): ch. 4 & 6


2. Statistical tests of difference

Many studies in the field seek to differentiate between groups and rely on common statistical techniques (t-tests and ANOVA, and their corresponding nonparametric tests) to determine whether a statistically significant difference can be determined. The strengths and drawbacks of these techniques will be discussed along with best practices for reporting their results.

RA: Mellinger & Hanson (2017): ch. 7 & 8; Timarová & Salaets (2011) or Redelinghuys & Kruger (2015)


3. Statistical tests of relationship

Not all studies rely on contrasting groups based on a specific variable; some seek to establish a relationship between variables as a way to better understand how they interact. This session focuses on tests of statistical relationship, including correlational analysis and measures of reliability (intercoder reliability, internal reliability).


RA: Mellinger & Hanson (2017): ch. 11; Sun & Shreve (2014)


4. Reading, reporting, and replication

Performing statistical tests are only part of a researcher’s toolkit when working with quantitative research; we also need to be able to report our findings to the larger researcher community as well as understand how to read, interpret, and understand work that has used these techniques. This session focuses on best practices in reporting quantitative research across the different types of testing discussed throughout the week, while also advocating for replication to enable synthesis and meta-analysis.

RA: Mellinger & Hanson (2017): ch. 13; Mellinger & Hanson (2020)

5. Ethics of data analysis

[Joint session with Prof Sijia Chen]

This session addresses important ethical issues and quandaries that face researchers during quantitative research, including: reproducibility of results; over-interpretation of statistical results; missing data; data sharing; potential and detected biases in quantitative data; data mining; and data fishing or dredging.

RA: American Statistical Association (2018)