Byung-Chul Han, "La società della stanchezza"

Byung-Chul Han, in The Burnout Society, offers a remarkably lucid diagnosis of a radical transformation of power in advanced capitalism. While the twentieth century was dominated by a disciplinary model in which coercion was exercised through rigid institutions and structures of control – as Foucault analysed in his genealogy of power – today we witness a subtler yet pervasive shift: the subject is no longer externally constrained but instead self-exploits from within. The postmodern individual does not obey a repressive authority but rather an imperative of performance that they have internalized, convinced that they are acting out of choice, expressing their own freedom.
Neoliberalism has thus perfected a form of domination that is not based on negation but on an excess of positivity. It is no longer prohibition that delimits the field of action, but rather a constant incentive to do, produce, and perform. This is the crucial point: the neoliberal subject does not perceive their condition as oppressive, because power no longer manifests itself through prohibition but through an overload of possibilities. Society no longer demands obedience but rather asks individuals to be active, to realize themselves, and to express their potential. However, this relentless drive for performance is nothing but a form of subjugation masked as self-determination. The subject thus becomes simultaneously master and servant of themselves, executioner, and victim, caught in a cycle of self-exploitation with no apparent escape.

The Subject of Performance and the Dissolution of Limits

The psychological aspect of this transformation is central. Han observes that the disciplinary society generated repressed individuals, whereas the performance society produces depressed subjects. Anxiety, burnout, and the inability to stop no longer stem from external imposition but from the relentless pressure to excel, to be constantly productive, efficient, and available. The paradox is evident: while the neoliberal system presents itself as the triumph of freedom, it engenders a new form of servitude, in which the subject, believing themselves to be free, condemns themselves to unlimited self-exploitation.
From an economic perspective, this dynamic finds a paradigmatic manifestation in the gig economy and flexible labour. Whereas Fordist capitalism maintained a clear separation between working time and personal life, today this distinction has been entirely eroded. The worker is always connected, always available, always potentially productive. Even leisure time becomes an opportunity for optimization: books are read for self-improvement, hobbies are pursued to enhance personal value, and social media are curated as personal brands. Capitalism no longer merely demands labour; it transforms every aspect of existence into a performance.
The consequences of this shift are profound. Traditional economic theories distinguished between productive labour and leisure, between necessity and superfluity, yet in the current system, all activities are subsumed under a continuous logic of capital accumulation. This transformation aligns with Marx’s theory of alienation but radicalizes it: no longer is labour the site of estrangement, but life itself becomes a commodified performance. The individual is not merely a worker but an entrepreneur of the self, navigating a market of endless competition, where every moment is an investment and every action a transaction.
This recalls Marcuse’s critique in One-Dimensional Man: the neoliberal system no longer needs repression, as it has absorbed and neutralized all forms of opposition. The worker no longer perceives themselves as exploited because they identify with the very process of production. It is the illusion of freedom that renders the system perfect: the subject does not resist power because they believe they exercise it.

The Elimination of Negativity and the Crisis of Experience

Han highlights how this economic-psychological mutation is accompanied by a broader cultural transformation: the disappearance of negativity. The performance society is a society of hyperactivity, in which limits, silence, and pauses are no longer conceivable. Every moment must be filled; every experience must be productive. This is also reflected in the structure of digital capitalism: social networks, for instance, operate through continuous stimulation, an overabundance of content that prevents any real internalization.
This elimination of negativity has devastating effects on the psyche. Walter Benjamin, in his writings on modernity, had already observed how capitalist society destroyed authentic experience, replacing it with an uninterrupted flow of superficial stimuli. Han builds on this insight, adapting it to contemporary conditions: in the burnout society, the subject is bombarded with inputs that force a continuous reaction, preventing any deep elaboration. Reflection, boredom, emptiness – essential elements for inner growth – become intolerable. The result is a hyperactive yet hollow society, incapable of creating authentic meaning.

Possibilities of Resistance?

At this point, an inevitable question arises: is there a way out? Han suggests that reclaiming negativity could be a form of resistance, but the problem is that this very negativity has vanished from our horizon. Capitalism does not merely exploit bodies; it has restructured consciousness itself: even rest has become instrumental to performance, even free time must be "well spent."
Here, a profoundly political reflection emerges. If modern power was exercised through repression, contemporary power operates through seduction. Baudrillard had already intuited this: the system does not impose itself through force but through an excess of fascination, stimuli, and possibilities. And precisely because everything appears possible, nothing becomes truly subversive. Even critique, even protest risks being reabsorbed by the system itself, transformed into a new trend, a new form of consumption.

Conclusion

In conclusion, Han’s The Burnout Society presents a compelling critique of contemporary neoliberal subjectivity, but it is not without its weaknesses. His argument about the internalization of disciplinary power and the transition to self-exploitation is insightful, yet it often lacks historical depth and fails to acknowledge the continuities between past and present forms of labour and ideology. By portraying the “achievement subject” as a universal figure, Han risks oversimplification – while his framework applies well to knowledge workers, entrepreneurs, and freelancers, it struggles to account for manual labourers or those subjected to extreme exploitation. This overgeneralization weakens the analytical precision of his claims.
Moreover, Han’s concept of “excess positivity” remains conceptually ambiguous. At times, he employs it in a strong, Hegelian sense, implying the negation of dialectical negativity, yet elsewhere, it denotes nothing more than the constant imperative to remain optimistic and productive. This inconsistency can obscure rather than illuminate his argument. Additionally, his dismissal of alternative theoretical perspectives, such as Deleuze and Baudrillard’s critiques of Foucault’s disciplinary society, is too hasty, depriving his analysis of a more robust engagement with existing critiques of power and subjectivation.
Finally, there is an ironic contradiction in Han’s own mode of production: his rapid output of concise, easily digestible books adheres to the very logic of performance and productivity that he critiques. This raises the question of whether his work, despite its critical stance, participates in the same neoliberal dynamics it seeks to expose. While The Burnout Society remains an accessible and thought-provoking text, a more rigorous engagement with historical materialism and political economy would have significantly enhanced its depth and persuasiveness.